Potential Mediators for Treatment Effects of Novel Diabetes Medications on Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes: A Meta-Regression Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Prior research suggests clinical effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) are mediated by changes in glycated hemoglobin, body weight, systolic blood pressure, hematocrit, and urine albumin-creatinine ratio. We aimed to confirm these findings using a meta-analytic approach. METHODS AND RESULTS: We updated a systematic review of 9 GLP-1RA and 13 SGLT2i trials and summarized longitudinal mediator data. We obtained hazard ratios (HRs) for cardiovascular, renal, and mortality outcomes. We performed linear mixed-effects modeling of LogHRs versus changes in potential mediators and investigated differences in meta-regression associations among drug classes using interaction terms. HRs generally became more protective with greater glycated hemoglobin reduction among GLP-1RA trials, with average HR improvements of 20% to 30%, reaching statistical significance for major adverse cardiovascular events (ΔHR, 23%; P=0.02). Among SGLT2i trials, associations with HRs were not significant and differed from GLP1-RA trials for major adverse cardiovascular events (Pinteraction=0.04). HRs for major adverse cardiovascular events, myocardial infarction, and stroke became less efficacious (ΔHR, -15% to -34%), with more weight loss for SGLT2i but not for GLP-1RA trials (ΔHR, 4%-7%; Pinteraction<0.05). Among 5 SGLT2i trials with available data, HRs for stroke became less efficacious with larger increases in hematocrit (ΔHR, 123%; P=0.09). No changes in HRs by systolic blood pressure (ΔHR, -11% to 9%) and urine albumin-creatinine ratio (ΔHR, -1% to 4%) were found for any outcome. CONCLUSIONS: We confirmed increased efficacy findings for major adverse cardiovascular events with reduction in glycated hemoglobin for GLP1-RAs. Further research is needed on the potential loss of cardiovascular benefits with increased weight loss and hematocrit for SGLT2i.

Left Behind: Medicaid Immigrant Exclusions and Access to Maternal Health Care Across the Reproductive-Perinatal Continuum.

Noncitizen immigrants are often excluded from accessing critical safety-net programs, such as Medicaid. Access to health care plays a central role in current policy debates on maternal health. Yet, immigrant exclusions are rarely considered in maternal health policy research. Through open-ended interviews with 31 policymakers, researchers, and program administrators, we examined state variations in approaches to providing care for pregnant, post, and intrapartum immigrant women. We found four themes: (a) a patchwork safety-net exists that provides some access to immigrants ineligible for Medicaid; (b) patchwork coverage leads to patchwork care, which can contribute to maternal health inequities; (c) immigrant Medicaid policy is assembled along a hierarchy of deservingness based on documentation status; (d) Trump-era public charge rules and political climate may have a substantial chilling effect on benefit uptake regardless of eligibility. We discuss implications for efforts to expand Medicaid postpartum and address the maternal health crisis.

Cardiovascular and Renal Benefits of Novel Diabetes Drugs by Baseline Cardiovascular Risk: A Systematic Review, Meta-analysis, and Meta-regression.

BACKGROUND: Eligibility for glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA) and sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) has been expanded to patients with diabetes at lower cardiovascular risk, but whether treatment benefits differ by risk levels is not clear. PURPOSE: To investigate whether patients with varying risks differ in cardiovascular and renal benefits from GLP-1RA and SGLT2i with use of meta-analysis and meta-regression. DATA SOURCES: We performed a systematic review using PubMed through 7 November 2022. STUDY SELECTION: We included reports of GLP-1RA and SGLT2i confirmatory randomized trials in adult patients with safety or efficacy end point data. DATA EXTRACTION: Hazard ratio (HR) and event rate data were extracted for mortality, cardiovascular, and renal outcomes. DATA SYNTHESIS: We analyzed 9 GLP-1RA and 13 SGLT2i trials comprising 154,649 patients. Summary HRs were significant for cardiovascular mortality (GLP-1RA 0.87 and SGLT2i 0.86), major adverse cardiovascular events (0.87 and 0.88), heart failure (0.89 and 0.70), and renal (0.84 and 0.65) outcomes. For stroke, efficacy was significant for GLP-1RA (0.84) but not for SGLT2i (0.92). Associations between control arm cardiovascular mortality rates and HRs were nonsignificant. Five-year absolute risk reductions (0.80-4.25%) increased to 11.6% for heart failure in SGLT2i trials in patients with high risk (Pslope < 0.001). For GLP1-RAs, associations were nonsignificant. LIMITATIONS: Analyses were limited by lack of patient-level data, consistency in end point definitions, and variation in cardiovascular mortality rates for GLP-1RA trials. CONCLUSIONS: Relative effects of novel diabetes drugs are preserved across baseline cardiovascular risk, whereas absolute benefits increase at higher risks, particularly regarding heart failure. Our findings suggest a need for baseline risk assessment tools to identify variation in absolute treatment benefits and improve decision-making.

Inconsistent Surgical Implant Documentation: A Case Study in Total Knee and Hip Arthroplasty.

Value-based care initiatives require accurate quantification of resource utilization. This study explores hospital resource documentation performance for total knee and hip arthroplasty (TKA, THA) implants and how this may differ between hospitals. This retrospective study utilized the Premier discharge database, years 2006 to 2020. TKA/THA cases were categorized into 5 tiers based upon the completeness of implant component documentation: Platinum, Gold, Silver, Bronze, Poor. Correlation between TKA and THA documentation performance (per-hospital percentage of Platinum cases) was assessed. Logistic regression analyses measured the association between hospital characteristics (region, teaching status, bed size, urban/rural) and satisfactory documentation. TKA/THA implant documentation performance was compared to documentation for endovascular stent procedures. Individual hospitals tended to have very complete (Platinum) or very incomplete (Poor) documentation for both TKA and THA. TKA and THA documentation performance were correlated (correlation coefficient = .70). Teaching hospitals were less likely to have satisfactory documentation for both TKA (P = .002) and THA (P = .029). Documentation for endovascular stent procedures was superior compared to TKA/THA. Hospitals' TKA and THA-related implant documentation performance is generally either very proficient or very poor, in contrast with often well-documented endovascular stent procedures. Hospital characteristics, other than teaching status, do not appear to impact TKA/THA documentation completeness.

Recent Telehealth Utilization at a Large Federally Qualified Health Center System: Evidence of Disparities Even Within Telehealth Modalities.

Objective: To explore overall trends as well as racial/ethnic disparities in utilization of different telehealth modalities (telephone vs. televideo) at federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: Using electronic health record data from a large New York-based FQHC system, we aggregated (separately) Behavioral Health and Family Practice visits per month occurring in-person, by telephone, or by televideo and graphed monthly trends in visits across the pre-pandemic, peak-pandemic, and post-peak-pandemic periods. We calculated fractions of visits conducted by modality for each patient demographic (race/ethnicity, primary language, age, gender, insurance type, and geography) and conducted bivariate assessments to test relationships between patient characteristics and modality. Results: Our data contained 121,072 unique patients and 811,105 visits overall. Telehealth use peaked in April 2020 but continued to account for a significant fraction of FQHC visits-nearly 25% (N = 4,908) of monthly Family Practice visits and a massive 98% (N = 14,173) of Behavioral Health visits as late as June 2021. Of all telehealth visits, nearly half were by telephone. Moreover, demographic factors differed between FQHC patients using telephone visits versus those using televideo: Black, non-English speaking, older, and Medicaid patients had significantly higher utilization of telephone visits than televideo visits (e.g., 25.9% of all Black patients' visits were via telephone vs. 17.1% via televideo; p < 0.001). In contrast, younger, Asian, and privately insured patients had significantly higher televideo visits. Conclusions: Our results suggest that telephone visits remain critical to the provision of health care for FQHC patients. They also suggest that disparities extend beyond the telehealth versus in-person dichotomy and inequities exist even within the type of telehealth used. This has implications for patient health, FQHC quality outcomes, as well as optimal Medicaid telehealth reimbursement policy.

Barriers to Telehealth Utilization Among Patients of Limited Income with Chronic Conditions and a Gap in Care.

Objective: This study assessed barriers and facilitators to telehealth utilization among patients living in New York City public housing with chronic conditions and a gap in clinical care. Methods: Community health workers performed outreach to eligible patients by telephone between January and March 2021. Consenting respondents answered questions about telehealth barriers, including internet and cell phone access, ownership of digital devices, comfort with using digital devices, comfort with telehealth, cost, awareness, and availability of written materials in patients' preferred language. We obtained demographic and medical information from patients' electronic health records. We used multivariable logistic regression to estimate the association of barriers with the odds of self-reported prior telehealth utilization. Results: A total of 304 consenting patients participated in the program. The average patient had 3.1 telehealth barriers; 76% reported at least one barrier. Regression analysis showed sizable reductions in prior telehealth utilization associated with the barriers of unlimited cell phone minutes (odds ratio [OR]: 0.21 [0.05-0.88], p = 0.033), technological comfort (OR: 0.33 [0.13-0.82], p = 0.016), conceptual comfort with telehealth (OR: 0.15 [0.04-0.54], p = 0.004), and materials in the patient's preferred language (OR: 0.23 [0.07-0.79], p = 0.02). Discussion: With a high prevalence of telehealth barriers, patients with limited income, a chronic condition, and a care gap may benefit from greater technological access and supportive programs for awareness, telehealth comfort, and navigation support. Addressing telehealth barriers could increase the quality of medical care and improve health outcomes for this population.

Economic Evaluation of an Intervention to Prevent Adolescent Dating Violence (Me & You).

Me & You: Building Healthy Relationships (Me & You) is a multilevel, technology-enhanced adolescent dating violence (DV) prevention program that aimed to reduce DV among ethnic-minority, early adolescent, urban youth. A group-randomized control trial of Me & You, conducted with 10 middle schools from a large urban school district in Southeast Texas in 2014-2015, found it to be effective in reducing DV perpetration and decreasing some forms of DV victimization. Economic evaluations of DV interventions are extremely limited, despite calls for more economic analyses to be incorporated in research. We help fill this gap by evaluating the cost-effectiveness from the payer and societal perspectives of implementing the Me & You program. Using cost data collected alongside the Me & You group-randomized trial, we computed incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. Our primary outcome was "any DV perpetrated" within 12 months of the intervention. We conducted a cost-benefit analysis beyond the intervention endpoint by using literature estimates of per-victim lifetime costs of DV. We performed sensitivity analyses to assess effects of uncertain parameters. Under the base-case scenario, the cost of the Me & You curriculum compared to the standard curriculum was $103.70 per-student from the societal perspective, and the effectiveness was 34.84 perpetrations averted, implying an incremental cost per perpetration averted of $2.98, which ranged from $0.48 to $73.24 in sensitivity analysis. Thus, we find the Me & You curriculum is cost-effective and cost-saving in most scenarios. Policymakers should carefully consider school-based DV prevention programs, and cost data should be regularly collected in adolescent prevention program evaluations.

Analysis of State Medicaid Expansion and Access to Timely Prenatal Care Among Women Who Were Immigrant vs US Born.

Importance: Disparities exist in access to timely prenatal care between immigrant women and US-born women. Exclusions from Medicaid eligibility based on immigration status may exacerbate disparities. Objective: To examine changes in timely prenatal care by nativity after Medicaid expansion. Design, Setting, and Participants: A cross-sectional difference-in-differences (DID) and triple-difference analysis of 22 042 624 singleton births from January 1, 2011, to December 31, 2019, in 31 states was conducted using US natality data. Data analysis was performed from February 1, 2021, to August 24, 2022. Exposures: Within 16 states that expanded Medicaid in 2014, the rate of timely prenatal care by nativity in years after expansion was compared with the rate in the years before expansion. Similar comparisons were conducted in 15 states that did not expand Medicaid and tested across expansion vs nonexpansion states. Main Outcomes and Measures: Timely prenatal care was categorized as prenatal care initiated in the first trimester. Individual-level covariates included age, parity, race and ethnicity, and educational level. State-level time-varying covariates included unemployment, poverty, and Immigrant Climate Index. Results: A total of 5 390 814 women preexpansion and 6 544 992 women postexpansion were included. At baseline in expansion states, among immigrant women, 413 479 (27.3%) were Asian, 110 829 (7.3%) were Black, 752 176 (49.6%) were Hispanic, and 238 746 (15.8%) were White. Among US-born women, 96 807 (2.5%) were Asian, 470 128 (12.1%) were Black, 699 776 (18.1%) were Hispanic, and 2 608 873 (67.3%) were White. Prenatal care was timely in 75.9% of immigrant women vs 79.9% of those who were US born in expansion states at baseline. After Medicaid expansion, the immigrant vs US-born disparity in timely prenatal care was similar to the preexpansion level (DID, -0.91; 95% CI, -1.91 to 0.09). Stratifying by race and ethnicity showed an increase in the Asian vs White disparity after expansion, with 1.53 per 100 fewer immigrant women than those who were US born accessing timely prenatal care (95% CI, -2.31 to -0.75), and in the Hispanic vs White disparity (DID, -1.18 per 100; 95% CI, -2.07 to -0.30). These differences were more pronounced among women with a high school education or less (DID for Asian women, -2.98; 95% CI, -4.45 to -1.51; DID for Hispanic women, -1.47; 95% CI, -2.48 to -0.46). Compared with nonexpansion states, differences in DID estimates were found among Hispanic women with a high school education or less (triple-difference, -1.86 per 100 additional women in expansion states who would not receive timely prenatal care; 95% CI, -3.31 to -0.42). Conclusions and Relevance: The findings of this study suggest that exclusions from Medicaid eligibility based on immigration status may be associated with increased health care disparities among some immigrant groups. This finding has relevance to current policy debates regarding Medicaid coverage during and outside of pregnancy.

COVID-19 pandemic-related change in racial and ethnic disparities in exclusive breastmilk feeding during the delivery hospitalization: a differences-in-differences analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Exclusive breastmilk feeding during the delivery hospitalization, a Joint Commission indicator of perinatal care quality, is associated with longer-term breastfeeding success. Marked racial and ethnic disparities in breastfeeding exclusivity and duration existed prior to COVID-19. The pandemic, accompanied by uncertainty regarding intrapartum and postpartum safety practices, may have influenced disparities in infant feeding practices. Our objective was to examine whether the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City was associated with a change in racial and ethnic disparities in exclusive breastmilk feeding during the delivery stay. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of electronic medical records from 14,964 births in two New York City hospitals. We conducted a difference-in-differences (DID) analysis to compare Black-white, Latina-white, and Asian-white disparities in exclusive breastmilk feeding in a pandemic cohort (April 1-July 31, 2020, n=3122 deliveries) to disparities in a pre-pandemic cohort (January 1, 2019-February 28, 2020, n=11,842). We defined exclusive breastmilk feeding as receipt of only breastmilk during delivery hospitalization, regardless of route of administration. We ascertained severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection status from reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction tests from nasopharyngeal swab at admission. For each DID model (e.g. Black-white disparity), we used covariate-adjusted log binomial regression models to estimate racial and ethnic risk differences, pandemic versus pre-pandemic cohort risk differences, and an interaction term representing the DID estimator. RESULTS: Exclusive breastmilk feeding increased from pre-pandemic to pandemic among white (40.8% to 46.6%, p<0.001) and Asian (27.9% to 35.8%, p=0.004) women, but not Black (22.6% to 25.3%, p=0.275) or Latina (20.1% to 21.4%, p=0.515) women overall. There was an increase in the Latina-white exclusive breastmilk feeding disparity associated with the pandemic (DID estimator=6.3 fewer cases per 100 births (95% CI=-10.8, -1.9)). We found decreased breastmilk feeding specifically among SARS-CoV-2 positive Latina women (20.1% pre-pandemic vs. 9.1% pandemic p=0.013), and no change in Black-white or Asian-white disparities. CONCLUSIONS: We observed a pandemic-related increase in the Latina-white disparity in exclusive breastmilk feeding, urging hospital policies and programs to increase equity in breastmilk feeding and perinatal care quality during and beyond this health emergency.

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Very Preterm Birth and Preterm Birth Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Importance: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic may exacerbate existing racial/ethnic inequities in preterm birth. Objective: To assess whether racial/ethnic disparities in very preterm birth (VPTB) and preterm birth (PTB) increased during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study included 8026 Black, Latina, and White women who gave birth during the study period. A difference-in-differences (DID) analysis of Black vs White disparities in VPTB or PTB in a pandemic cohort was compared with a prepandemic cohort by using electronic medical records obtained from 2 hospitals in New York City. Exposures: Women who delivered from March 28 to July 31, 2020, were considered the pandemic cohort, and women who delivered from March 28 to July 31, 2019, were considered the prepandemic cohort. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction tests for the presence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) were performed using samples obtained via nasopharyngeal swab at the time of admission. Main Outcomes and Measures: Clinical estimates of gestational age were used to calculate VPTB (<32 weeks) and PTB (<37 weeks). Log binomial regression was performed to estimate Black vs White risk differences, pandemic cohort vs prepandemic cohort risk difference, and an interaction term representing the DID estimator. Covariate-adjusted models included age, insurance, prepregnancy body mass index, and parity. Results: Of 3834 women in the pandemic cohort, 492 (12.8%) self-identified as Black, 678 (17.7%) as Latina, 2012 (52.5%) as White, 408 (10.6%) as Asian, and 244 (6.4%) as other or unspecified race/ethnicity, with approximately half the women 25 to 34 years of age. The prepandemic cohort comprised 4192 women with similar sociodemographic characteristics. In the prepandemic cohort, VPTB risk was 4.4% (20 of 451) and PTB risk was 14.4% (65 of 451) among Black infants compared with 0.8% (17 of 2188) VPTB risk and 7.1% (156 of 2188) PTB risk among White infants. In the pandemic cohort, VPTB risk was 4.3% (21 of 491) and PTB risk was 13.2% (65 of 491) among Black infants compared with 0.5% (10 of 1994) VPTB risk and 7.0% (240 of 1994) PTB risk among White infants. The DID estimators indicated that no increase in Black vs White disparities were found (DID estimator for VPTB, 0.1 additional cases per 100 [95% CI, -2.5 to 2.8]; DID estimator for PTB, 1.1 fewer case per 100 [95% CI, -5.8 to 3.6]). The results were comparable in covariate-adjusted models when limiting the population to women who tested negative for SARS-CoV-2. No change was detected in Latina vs White PTB disparities during the pandemic. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study of women who gave birth in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic, no evidence was found for increased racial/ethnic disparities in PTB, among women who tested positive or tested negative for SARS-CoV-2.

Peering Behind the Veil: Trends in Types of Contracts Between Private Health Plans and Hospitals.

Contracting between private health plans and hospitals has been described as "chaos behind a veil of secrecy." We develop a novel algorithm that classifies inpatient claims as one of three contract types-discounted charges, fixed rates, or per diems-and apply it to the 2009-2014 Colorado All Payer Claims Database. Of $1.1 billion in classifiable private health plan payments for inpatient care in Colorado, we find that 42.1% were fixed rates, 41.1% were discounted charges, and 16.0% were per diems. We find wide variation in contract types among private health plans and hospital types, and a pronounced shift over the study period in private plans' contract types, away from discounted charges, and toward fixed rates. To test our algorithm's validity, we apply it to Colorado Medicare and Medicaid claims-both of which are known primarily to pay using fixed rates-and find, reassuringly, that 86.3% of Medicare payments (98.6% when we exclude Medicare claims with special payment rules) and 79.7% of Medicaid payments are classified as fixed rates.

Characteristics of telehealth users in NYC for COVID-related care during the coronavirus pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: To explore whether racial/ethnic differences in telehealth use existed during the peak pandemic period among NYC patients seeking care for COVID-19 related symptoms. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study used data from a large health system in NYC - the epicenter of the US crisis - to describe characteristics of patients seeking COVID-related care via telehealth, ER, or office encounters during the peak pandemic period. Using multinomial logistic regression, we estimated the magnitude of the relationship between patient characteristics and the odds of having a first encounter via telehealth versus ER or office visit, and then used regression parameter estimates to predict patients' probabilities of using different encounter types given their characteristics. RESULTS: Demographic factors, including race/ethnicity and age, were significantly predictive of telehealth use. As compared to Whites, Blacks had higher adjusted odds of using both the ER versus telehealth (OR: 4.3, 95% CI: 4.0-4.6) and office visits versus telehealth (OR: 1.4, 95% CI: 1.3-1.5). For Hispanics versus Whites, the analogous ORs were 2.5 (95% CI: 2.3-2.7) and 1.2 (95% CI: 1.1-1.3). Compared to any age groups, patients 65+ had significantly higher odds of using either ER or office visits versus telehealth. CONCLUSIONS: The response to COVID-19 has involved an unprecedented expansion in telehealth. While older Americans and minority populations among others are known to be disadvantaged by the digital divide, few studies have examined disparities in telehealth specifically, and none during COVID-19. Additional research into sociodemographic heterogeneity in telehealth use is needed to prevent potentially further exacerbating health disparities overall.

Association between depression and healthcare expenditures among elderly cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: Both depression and cancer are economically burdensome. However, how depression affects the healthcare expenditures of elderly cancer patients from payers' and patients' perspectives is largely unknown. This study investigated whether depression resulted in higher healthcare expenditures among these patients from both payers' and patients' perspectives and identified health service use categories associated with increased expenditures. METHODS: From the Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey (MCBS)-Medicare database, we identified breast, lung and prostate cancer patients aged 65 years and over who were newly diagnosed between 2007 and 2012. Presence of depression was based on self-reports from the surveys. We used generalized linear models (GLM) and two-part models to examine the impact of depression on healthcare expenditures during the first two years of cancer diagnosis controlling for a vast array of covariates. We stratified the analyses of total healthcare expenditures by healthcare services and payers. RESULTS: Out of the 710 elderly breast, lung and prostate cancer patients in our study cohort, 128 (17.7%) reported depression. Individuals with depression had $11,454 higher total healthcare expenditures, $8213 higher medical provider expenditures and $405 higher other services expenditures compared to their counterparts without depression. Also, they were significantly more likely to have inpatient services. For payers, they incurred $8280 and $1270 higher expenditures from Medicare's and patients' perspectives, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Elderly cancer patients with depression have significantly higher healthcare expenditures from both payers' and patients' perspectives and over different expenditure types. More research is needed in depression screening, diagnosis and treatment for this population.

Comparing Utilization and Costs of Care in Freestanding Emergency Departments, Hospital Emergency Departments, and Urgent Care Centers.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: We compare utilization, price per visit, and the types of care delivered across freestanding emergency departments (EDs), hospital-based EDs, and urgent care centers in Texas. METHODS: We analyzed insurance claims processed by Blue Cross Blue Shield of Texas from 2012 to 2015 for patient visits to freestanding EDs, hospital-based EDs, or urgent care centers in 16 Texas metropolitan statistical areas containing 84.1% of the state's population. We calculated the aggregate number of visits, average price per visit, proportion of price attributable to facility and physician services, and proportion of price billed to Blue Cross Blue Shield of Texas versus out of pocket, by facility type. Prices for the top 20 diagnoses and procedures by facility type are compared. RESULTS: Texans use hospital-based EDs and urgent care centers much more than freestanding EDs, but freestanding ED utilization increased 236% between 2012 and 2015. The average price per visit was lower for freestanding EDs versus hospital-based EDs in 2012 ($1,431 versus $1,842), but prices in 2015 were comparable ($2,199 versus $2,259). Prices for urgent care centers were only $164 and $168 in 2012 and 2015. Out-of-pocket liability for consumers for all these facilities increased slightly from 2012 to 2015. There was 75% overlap in the 20 most common diagnoses at freestanding EDs versus urgent care centers and 60% overlap for hospital-based EDs and urgent care centers. However, prices for patients with the same diagnosis were on average almost 10 times higher at freestanding and hospital-based EDs relative to urgent care centers. CONCLUSION: Utilization of freestanding EDs is rapidly expanding in Texas. Higher prices at freestanding and hospital-based EDs relative to urgent care centers, despite substantial overlap in services delivered, imply potential inefficient use of emergency facilities.

Retail Clinic Visits For Low-Acuity Conditions Increase Utilization And Spending.

Retail clinics have been viewed by policy makers and insurers as a mechanism to decrease health care spending, by substituting less expensive clinic visits for more expensive emergency department or physician office visits. However, retail clinics may actually increase spending if they drive new health care utilization. To assess whether retail clinic visits represent new utilization or a substitute for more expensive care, we used insurance claims data from Aetna for the period 2010-12 to track utilization and spending for eleven low-acuity conditions. We found that 58 percent of retail clinic visits for low-acuity conditions represented new utilization and that retail clinic use was associated with a modest increase in spending, of $14 per person per year. These findings do not support the idea that retail clinics decrease health care spending.

A cross-sectional analysis of variation in charges and prices across California for percutaneous coronary intervention.

BACKGROUND: Though past studies have shown wide variation in aggregate hospital price indices and specific procedures, few have documented or explained such variation for distinct and common episodes of care. OBJECTIVES: We sought to examine the variability in charges for percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with a drug-eluting stent and without major complications (MS-DRG-247), and determine whether hospital and market characteristics influenced these charges. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of adults admitted to California hospitals in 2011 for MS-DRG-247 using patient discharge data from the California Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development. We used a two-part linear regression model to first estimate hospital-specific charges adjusted for patient characteristics, and then examine whether the between-hospital variation in those estimated charges was explained by hospital and market characteristics. RESULTS: Adjusted charges for the average California patient admitted for uncomplicated PCI ranged from $22,047 to $165,386 (median: $88,350) depending on which hospital the patient visited. Hospitals in areas with the highest cost of living, those in rural areas, and those with more Medicare patients had higher charges, while government-owned hospitals charged less. Overall, our model explained 43% of the variation in adjusted charges. Estimated discounted prices paid by private insurers ranged from $3,421 to $80,903 (median: $28,571). CONCLUSIONS: Charges and estimated discounted prices vary widely between hospitals for the average California patient undergoing PCI without major complications, a common and relatively homogeneous episode of care. Though observable hospital characteristics account for some of this variation, the majority remains unexplained.

Analysis of variation in charges and prices paid for vaginal and caesarean section births: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the between-hospital variation of charges and discounted prices for uncomplicated vaginal and caesarean section deliveries, and to determine the institutional and market-level characteristics that influence adjusted charges. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Using data from the California Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development (OSHPD), we conducted a cross-sectional study of all privately insured patients admitted to California hospitals in 2011 for uncomplicated vaginal delivery (diagnosis-related group (DRG) 775) or uncomplicated caesarean section (DRG 766). OUTCOME MEASURES: Hospital charges and discounted prices adjusted for each patient's clinical and demographic characteristics. RESULTS: We analysed 76 766 vaginal deliveries and 32 660 caesarean sections in California in 2011. After adjusting for patient demographic and clinical characteristics, we found that the average California woman could be charged as little as US$3296 or as much as US$37 227 for a vaginal delivery, and US$8312-US$70 908 for a caesarean section depending on which hospital she was admitted to. The discounted prices were, on an average, 37% of the charges. We found that hospitals in markets with middling competition had significantly lower adjusted charges for vaginal deliveries, while hospitals with higher wage indices and casemixes, as well as for-profit hospitals, had higher adjusted charges. Hospitals in markets with higher uninsurance rates charged significantly less for caesarean sections, while for-profit hospitals and hospitals with higher wage indices charged more. However, the institutional and market-level factors included in our models explained only 35-36% of the between-hospital variation in charges. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that charges and discounted prices for two common, relatively homogeneous diagnosis groups-uncomplicated vaginal delivery and caesarean section-vary widely between hospitals and are not well explained by observable patient or hospital characteristics.

Retail clinic visits and receipt of primary care.

BACKGROUND: An increasing number of patients are visiting retail clinics for simple acute conditions. Physicians worry that visits to retail clinics will interfere with primary care relationships. No prior study has evaluated the impact of retail clinics on receipt of primary care. OBJECTIVE: To assess the association between retail clinic use and receipt of key primary care functions. DESIGN: We performed a retrospective cohort analysis using commercial insurance claims from 2007 to 2009. PATIENTS: We identified patients who had a visit for a simple acute condition in 2008, the "index visit". We divided these 127,358 patients into two cohorts according to the location of that index visit: primary care provider (PCP) versus retail clinic. MAIN MEASURES: We evaluated three functions of primary care: (1) where patients first sought care for subsequent simple acute conditions; (2) continuity of care using the Bice-Boxerman index; and (3) preventive care and diabetes management. Using a difference-in-differences approach, we compared care received in the 365 days following the index visit to care received in the 365 days prior, using propensity score weights to account for selection bias. KEY RESULTS: Visiting a retail clinic instead of a PCP for the index visit was associated with a 27.7 visits per 100 patients differential reduction (p < 0 .001) in subsequent PCP visits for new simple acute conditions. Visiting a retail clinic instead of a PCP was also associated with decreased subsequent continuity of care (10.9 percentage-point differential reduction in Bice-Boxerman index, p < 0 .001). There was no differential change between the cohorts in receipt of preventive care or diabetes management. CONCLUSIONS: Retail clinics may disrupt two aspects of primary care: whether patients go to a PCP first for new conditions and continuity of care. However, they do not negatively impact preventive care or diabetes management.